Article Navigation
Article Contents
-
Abstract
-
Introduction
-
Materials and Methods
-
Results and Discussion
-
Supplementary Material
-
literature cited
- < Previous
- Next >
Journal Article
, , , ,
Molecular Biology and Evolution, Volume 18, Issue 6, June 2001, Pages 1070–1076, https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003878
Published:
01 June 2001
Article history
Accepted:
31 January 2001
Published:
01 June 2001
- Split View
- Views
- Article contents
- Figures & tables
- Video
- Audio
- Supplementary Data
-
Cite
Cite
Bing Su, Yunxin Fu, Yingxiang Wang, Li Jin, Ranajit Chakraborty, Genetic Diversity and Population History of the Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens) as Inferred from Mitochondrial DNA Sequence Variations, Molecular Biology and Evolution, Volume 18, Issue 6, June 2001, Pages 1070–1076, https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003878
Close
Search
Close
Search
Advanced Search
Search Menu
Abstract
The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is one of the flagship species in worldwide conservation and is of special interest in evolutionary studies due to its taxonomic uniqueness. We sequenced a 236-bp fragment of the mitochondrial D-loop region in a sample of 53 red pandas from two populations in southwestern China. Seventeen polymorphic sites were found, together with a total of 25 haplotypes, indicating a high level of genetic diversity in the red panda. However, no obvious genetic divergence was detected between the Sichuan and Yunnan populations. The consensus phylogenetic tree of the 25 haplotypes was starlike. The pairwise mismatch distribution fitted into a pattern of populations undergoing expansion. Furthermore, Fu's FS test of neutrality was significant for the total population (FS = −7.573), which also suggests a recent population expansion. Interestingly, the effective population size in the Sichuan population was both larger and more stable than that in the Yunnan population, implying a southward expansion from Sichuan to Yunnan.
Introduction
The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) (also known as the lesser panda) is one of the earth's living fossils. Its ancestor can be traced back to tens of millions of years ago with a wide distribution across Eurasia (Mayr 1986 ). Fossils of the red panda have been unearthed from China in the east to Britain in the west (Hu 1990a ). However, due to recent environmental destruction, the red panda is becoming an endangered species and has drawn a lot of attention in the conservation efforts, being rated as one of the flagship species (Hu 1990a ; Wei and Hu 1992 ; IUCN red list of threatened animals, 1996: http://www.wcmc.org.UK/species/animals/animal_redlist.html). The red panda lives in the bamboo forests of the Himalayan and Heng-Duan Mountains. Its current habitat extends through Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, and Southwestern China (Tibet, Yunnan, and Sichuan provinces), overlapping with the distribution of the giant panda (Gao 1987 ). Molecular phylogenetic studies showed that as an ancient species in the order Carnivora, the red panda is relatively close to the American raccoon (family Procyonidae) and may be either a monotypic family or a subfamily within the procynonid (Mayr 1986 ; Zhang and Ryder 1993 ; Slattery and O'Brien 1995 ).
Genetic variation in a sample is informative in studying population DNA history. Patterns of mismatch distribution and phylogenetic analyses among genes have been utilized to delineate population processes (Slatkin and Hudson 1991 ; Rogers and Harpending 1992 ; Nee et al. 1994 ; Moritz 1995 ; Glenn, Stephan, and Braun 1999 ). In addition, several methods were also developed to estimate population parameters and to test biological hypotheses (Watterson 1975 ; Tajima 1983, 1989 ; Fu and Li 1993 ; Fu 1994, 1996, 1997 ). Compared with its relative the giant panda, the red panda has not received sufficient attention in population genetic studies, partly due to the difficulty in obtaining large samples for such studies, a difficulty which is also common for many other endangered species. Here, we report the first study of mitochondrial DNA sequence variations in a large sample of red pandas.
Materials and Methods
DNA Samples
A total of 74 samples were collected, including blood samples (16), hair samples (16), and dried leather samples (42). Due to degradation, DNA extractions were successful for only 21 of the 42 dried leather samples (table 1 ). Therefore, the total number of DNA samples was reduced to 53. Both of the two subspecies were included, with five of them being Ailurus fulgens fulgens and the others being Ailurus fulgens styani (table 1 ). The blood and hair samples were obtained from the Chongqing Zoo and Chengdu Zoos of China, and their wild origins were known. Blood samples were anticoagulated with heparin and stored at −70°C before DNA extraction. The hair samples were collected by plucking and stored at −70°C. The dried leather samples were obtained from collections of the Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and stored at −70°C after sampling. The 53 red pandas were originally from 8 different geographic locations in the Sichuan and Yunnan provinces of China (fig. 1 ). Although efforts were made to avoid sampling related individuals, the relationships among animals in the sample were generally unknown.
DNA Extraction, Polymerase Chain Reaction, and Sequencing
DNA extractions from blood samples follow the standard phenol-chloroform method. The fresh hair and dried leather samples were first treated with proteinase K at 56°C for 2 h and then incubated with 10% Chelex 100 (Bio-Rad) at 98°C for 30 min. After centrifugation at a high speed (10,000 rpm) for 10 min, the supernatants were collected and directly used as DNA templates for PCR (Walsh 1990 ). The PCR was conducted by predenaturing at 94°C for 2 min, cycling at 94°C for 1 min, 56°C for 1 min, and 72°C for 1 min for 35–40 cycles, and a final extension at 72°C for 5 min. The primer sequences are CAC CAT CAA CAC CCA AAG CTG (forward) and TTC ATG GGC CCG GAG CGA G (reverse), which amplify a 276-bp fragment located upstream of the mtDNA D-loop region. The PCR products were purified through low-melting-point agarose gel electrophoresis. Sequencing was conducted on an ABI377 automatic sequencer with both forward and reverse primers.
Phylogenetic Analysis and Statistical Tests of Neutrality
For phylogenetic analysis, parsimony (PAUP, version 3.1.1; Swofford 1993 ) and median-joining network analyses (Bandelt, Forster, and Röhl 1999 ) were used. The hom*ologous sequence of the raccoon (Procyon lotor), the closest living relative of the red panda, was included as an outgroup. The pairwise mismatch distribution was generated using Arlequin, version 2.000 (Schneider, Roessli, and Excoffier 2000). The essential population parameter θ was estimated using Watterson's (1975) estimate, Tajima's (1983) estimate, and Fu's (1994) UPBLUE estimate. Watterson's estimate is based on the number of segregating sites among the sequences. Tajima's estimate is based on the calculation of the mean number of pairwise differences of the sequences, while Fu's UPBLUE estimate is done by incorporating the genealogical information of the sequences. A statistical test of neutrality was carried out using Fu's (1997)FS test. Strictly speaking, all three of these estimators of θ are based on the infinite-sites model (Watterson 1975 ; Tajima 1983 ; Fu 1997 ). Since the sequences generated in this study are from the D-loop region that has mutation hot spots, the infinite-sites model is violated to some extent. To minimize the effect of violation of the model on the estimation of θ, as well as statistical tests of neutrality, we inferred all the required information for parameter estimation and neutrality testing from the parsimony analysis. This was done by first reconstructing a parsimony tree from the sequences and then inferring the required information from the tree. For example, to infer the total number of mutations in the sample, we counted the total number of steps in the parsimony tree. For each pair of sequences, the distance needed for UPBLUE could easily be computed from the parsimony tree as well.
Fu's FS test of neutrality was used to infer the population history of the red panda. The FS value tends to be negative when there is an excess of recent mutations, and therefore a large negative value of FS will be taken as evidence against the neutrality of mutations, an indication of deviation caused by population growth and/or selection.
Results and Discussion
D-Loop Sequence Variations in the Red Panda
A total of 236 bp of the sequence of the D-loop upstream region was generated from the 53 samples, with 22 of them from the Yunnan population and 31 from the Sichuan population. The aligned sequences are shown in figure 2 , including the hom*ologous segment of the raccoon. There are 17 variant sites; 16 of them are transitions and 1 is a transversion (fig. 2 ). A total of 25 haplotypes were obtained from the 53 individual sequences, with 13 from the Sichuan population and 12 from the Yunnan population, respectively (table 2 ). Considering the nonrecombinant nature and high mutation rate of mtDNA, multiple recurrent mutations were responsible for the excessive number of haplotypes observed in the red panda. Among the 25 haplotypes, 18 of them were singletons (9 in Yunnan and 9 in Sichuan), indicating a high level of recent sequence diversity. Gene diversity was estimated to be 0.93 ± 0.02 based on Nei's (1987) method.
Mismatch Distribution and Phylogenetic Analysis
The pairwise sequence difference among the 53 red panda sequences was calculated using Arlequin, version 2.000 (Schneider, Roessli, and Excoffier 2000), and the mismatch distribution is shown in figure 3 . The pairwise differences range from 0 to 12 substitutions. Interestingly, the mismatch distribution is a better fit to a bell-like curve of a population undergoing exponential growth than a typical L-shaped one at equilibrium (Slatkin and Hudson 1991 ; Rogers and Harpending 1992 ). The pairwise sequence differences among the 25 haplotypes and the raccoon sequence are shown in table 3 .
Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis was performed with PAUP, version 3.1.1 (Swofford 1993 ). Based on the parsimony rule, we obtained a total of 13 equal most-parsimonious trees (tree length = 74, tree length among ingroups = 37). The strict consensus tree is shown in figure 4a . As revealed, the consensus tree demonstrated a very shallow phylogenetic structure among haplotypes. The starlike phylogeny in figure 4a again indicates the signature of population expansion in the red panda (Slatkin and Hudson 1991 ; Moritz 1995 ). We also constructed a network using the median-joining method (Bandelt, Forster, and Röhl 1999 ). Similarly, the haplotypes from the Sichuan and Yunnan populations were mixed together, and no phylogenetic inference could be made from the network in view of either geographic distribution or subspecies of the red panda (fig. 4b ).
Tests for Population Expansion
We conducted neutrality tests in two ways. First, all the 53 sequences were considered as one population, in which a total of 13 most-parsimonious trees existed. Second, based on the geographic information, the 53 red pandas were separated into two subpopulations, the Sichuan population (31 individuals) and the Yunnan population (22 individuals). Phylogenetic analyses using parsimony generated 25 and 160 equal most-parsimonious trees for the Sichuan and Yunnan populations, respectively. As explained earlier, special care was made to reduce bias in our analysis by inferring all of the required information from the parsimony analyses. Since hom*oplasy in the data did not seem to be severe (fig. 4b ), the parsimony trees should recover most mutations in the sample, and the influence of hom*oplasy on our analyses should be minimal. In addition, Fu (1994) showed that there is little difference in θ estimates from different most-parsimonious trees. The results of the θ estimations and the neutrality tests are summarized in table 4 .
Fu's FS test of neutrality, based on 5,000 simulated samplings, was significant at the 5% level (FS = −7.573) for the total population, a strong indication of population expansion, which was already implicated by the mismatch and phylogenetic analyses. However, when the Sichuan and Yunnan populations were analyzed separately, no significant FS values were obtained. The FS value of the Yunnan population was still negative (FS = −2.283) while that for the Sichuan population was positive. Hence, the Sichuan population seems to be relatively stable, and the Yunnan population shows a tendency for population growth (Fu 1997 ). We also applied several other statistical tests, including Tajima's (1989) and Fu and Li's (1993) tests (results not shown). None of them were able to reject the null hypothesis. This was likely due to a lack of power in these tests for population expansion (Fu 1997 ).
It is interesting to note that different estimators of θ put different weights on mutations occurring in different time periods. The UPBLUE puts heavy emphasis on recent mutations, thus revealing relatively recent population process, while Tajima's estimator put more weights on ancient mutations, therefore reflecting ancient population events (Fu 1997 ). Hence, a comparison of the two estimates could give some clues as to how population size has changed over time. Since θ = 2Nμ for the mitochondrial genome, the ratio of population size change is positively correlated with the θ values given a constant mutation rate. Table 4 shows that for the total population, the UPBLUE estimate is about two times as large as that of the Tajima estimate, indicating that the population size has been at least doubled recently. A similar situation was also seen in the Yunnan population (UPBLUE θ/Tajima's θ = 1.889), but not in the Sichuan population (UPBLUE θ/Tajima's θ = 1.105).
According to the fossil record, the red panda diverged from its common ancestor with bears about 40 MYA (Mayr 1986 ). With this divergence, by comparing the sequence difference between the red panda and the raccoon, the observed mutation rate for the red panda was calculated to be on the order of 10−9 for the D-loop region, which is apparently an underestimate compared with the average rate in mammals (Li 1997 ). This underestimation is probably due to multiple recurrent mutations in the D-loop region, as the divergence between the red panda and the raccoon is extremely deep.
It should be noted that population expansion may not be the only explanation for a significant FS test (Fu 1997 ). Other evolutionary forces, e.g., genetic hitchhiking and background selection, can also lead to similar patterns of variation. However, we did not observe any obvious population subdivision in the phylogenetic analysis, and we have not seen any data showing selection pressure on the mitochondrial DNA genome of the red panda, especially considering the noncoding nature of the D-loop region. Furthermore, selection would likely produce similar polymorphism patterns in the Sichuan and Yunnan populations, which is not the case in our observations. Therefore, the data presented in this study suggest that population expansion is the most likely cause of the significant FS test for the red panda.
It should also be noted that no shared haplotypes were observed between the Sichuan and Yunnan populations. This is probably due to either the sample size in this study or an implication of limited genetic divergence between these two populations, even though it was not observed in the phylogenetic analysis. The Yangtze River, the second largest river in China, lining between the Sichuan and Yunnan provinces could serve as a natural barrier in recent history (fig. 1 ). However, how complete the separation could be is unclear. According to the FS tests shown above, the effective population size of the Sichuan population is larger and more stable than that of the Yunnan population. Therefore, historically, Sichuan might be the homeland of the red panda, and population growth might have led to a southward expansion to Yunnan.
It is well known that genetic diversity exists in natural populations and is considered the raw material of evolution. When a population grows rapidly, genetic variations will be accumulated and maintained and in the long run will be beneficial to the success of this species. It has been reported that rare and endangered animal species usually show extremely low levels of genetic variation, which were interpreted as one of the critical reasons leading to extinction (O'Brien et al. 1985 ; Su et al. 1994 ; Wayne 1994 ). In this study, we showed that the red panda harbors a considerable amount of genetic variation resulting from both a relatively large effective population size and a recent population expansion, although its population size has been decreasing in the past several decades due to human activity. For the conservation of this endangered species, our results are encouraging. With a high level of genetic variation, the red panda would be more viable than its relative the giant panda, a well-known species with extremely low genetic variation (Su et al. 1994 ). This comparison coincides with the field observation and the ex situ breeding of both endangered animals, for which the newborn death rate is much higher for the giant panda than that for the red panda in the field, and the breeding of the red panda is much more successful than that of the giant panda (Hu 1990a, 1990b ). Therefore, as long as efforts are made to protect the natural habitats, the recovery of red panda populations should be expected.
Supplementary Material
GenBank accession numbers are AF294229—AF294253 (see fig. 2 for the sequence alignment).
Wolfgang Stephan, Reviewing Editor
1 Keywords: red panda mitochondrial DNA D-loop sequence diversity neutrality test population expansion
2 Address for correspondence and reprints: Bing Su, Human Genetics Center, University of Texas–Houston, 6901 Bertner Avenue, Houston, Texas 77030. bsu@sph.uth.tmc.edu .
Table 1 Red Pandas Sampled in this Study
Open in new tab
Table 1 Red Pandas Sampled in this Study
Open in new tab
Table 2 Mitochondrial DNA Haplotype Distribution of Red Pandas
Open in new tab
Table 2 Mitochondrial DNA Haplotype Distribution of Red Pandas
Open in new tab
Table 3 Pairwise Sequence Differences Among the 25 Haplotypes of the Red Panda and the hom*ologous Sequence of the Raccoon (outgroup)
Open in new tab
Table 3 Pairwise Sequence Differences Among the 25 Haplotypes of the Red Panda and the hom*ologous Sequence of the Raccoon (outgroup)
Open in new tab
Table 4 Summary of Estimtations of {θ} and Neutrality Tests
Open in new tab
Table 4 Summary of Estimtations of {θ} and Neutrality Tests
Open in new tab
Open in new tabDownload slide
Fig. 1.—The geographic distribution of red pandas sampled in this study. (1) Lu-shui, (2) Gong-Shan, (3) Lei-bo, (4) Mian-ning, (5) Shi-mian, (6) Kang-ding, (7) Mu-li, (8) E-bian
Open in new tabDownload slide
Fig. 2.—The mitochondrial DNA D-loop sequences of the 25 haplotypes in the 53 red pandas
Open in new tabDownload slide
Fig. 3.—The mismatch distribution of the 53 mtDNA D-loop sequences of the red panda. The data points are connected to make a smooth curve, indicating the bell-shaped distribution.
Open in new tabDownload slide
Fig. 4.—a, The starlike phylogenetic tree of the 25 mtDNA D-loop haplotypes in the red panda. This is the strict-consensus tree of the 13 most-parsimonious trees constructed (PAUP, version 3.1.1; Swofford 1993 ). b, The median-joining network of the red panda haplotypes. The solid circles represent the haplotypes from the Sichuan population, while the empty circles represent those from the Yunnan population. Due to data missing in several samples at site 71 (see fig. 2 ), this site was not included in the network analysis, which resulted in the pooling of Hap01 and Hap08. The haplotypes are connected by line segments proportional to the number of substitutions between haplotypes. The sizes of the circles are proportional to the haplotype frequencies.
We are grateful to Dr. David S. Woodruff for providing lab resources for part of the sequencing work. Dr. Ya-ping Zhang provided the primer and the raccoon sequences. We also thank Hongguang Hu, Menghu Wu, Guangxin He, Lisong Fei, and Fuwen Wei for providing samples. This project was supported by the Yunnan Natural Science Foundation, the National Natural Science Foundation of China, and the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
literature cited
Bandelt, H. J., P. Forster, and A. Röhl.
1999
. Median-joining networks for inferring intraspecific phylogenies.
Mol. Biol. Evol.
16
:
37
–48
Fu, Y. X.
1994
. A phylogenetic estimator of effective population size or mutation rate. Genetics 136:685–692
———.
1996
. New statistical tests of neutrality of mutations. Genetics 143:557–570
———.
1997
. Statistical tests of neutrality of mutations against population growth, hitchhiking and background selection. Genetics 147:915–925
Fu, Y. X., and W. H. Li.
1993
. Statistical tests of neutrality of mutations. Genetics 133:693–709
Gao, Y. T.
1987
. Mammals in China. Chinese Scientific Publishing, Beijing, China [in Chinese]
Glenn, T. C., W. Stephan, and M. J. Braun.
1999
. Effects of a population bottleneck on whooping crane mitochondrial DNA variation.
Conserv. Biol.
13
:
1097
–1107
Hu, J. C. 1990a. Proceedings of studies of the red panda. Chinese Scientific Publishing, Beijing, China [in Chinese]
———. 1990b. Proceedings of biological research in the giant panda. Sichuan Scientific Publishing, Chengdu, China [in Chinese]
Li, W. H.
1997
. Molecular evolution. Sinauer, Sunderland, Mass
Mayr, E.
1986
. Uncertainty in science: is the giant panda a bear or a raccoon? Nature 323:769–771
Moritz, C.
1995
. Uses of molecular phylogenies for conservation.
Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci.
349
:
113
–118
Nee, S., E. C. Holmes, R. M. May, and P. H. Harvey.
1994
. Extinction rates can be estimated from molecular phylogenies.
Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci.
344
:
77
–82
Nei, M.
1987
. Molecular evolutionary genetics. Columbia University Press, New York
O'Brien, S. J., M. E. Roelke, L. Marker, A. Newman, C. A. Winkler, D. Meltzer, L. Colly, J. F. Evermann, M. Bush, and D. E. Wildt.
1985
. A genetic basis for species vulnerability in the cheetah. Science 227:1428–1434
Rogers, A. R., and H. Harpending.
1992
. Population growth makes waves in the distribution of pairwise genetic differences.
Mol. Biol. Evol.
9
:
552
–569
Schneider, S., D. Roessli, and L. Excoffier.
2000
. Arlequin: a software for population genetics data analysis. Version 2.000. Genetics and Biometry Lab, Department of Anthropology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
Slatkin, M., and R. R. Hudson.
1991
. Pairwise comparisons of mitochondrial DNA sequences in stable and exponential growing populations. Genetics 129:555–562
Slattery, J. P., and S. J. O'Brien.
1995
. Molecular phylogeny of the red panda (Ailurus fulgens).
J. Hered.
86
:
413
–422
Su, B., L. M. Shi, G. X. He, A. J. Zhang, Y. F. Song, S. L. Zhong, and L. S. Fei.
1994
. Genetic diversity in the giant panda: evidence from protein electrophoresis.
Chin. Sci. Bull.
39
:
1305
–1309
Swofford, D. L.
1993
. Phylogenetic analysis using parsimony (PAUP). Version 3.1.1. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C
Tajima, F.
1983
. Evolutionary relationship of DNA sequences in finite populations. Genetics 105:437–460
———.
1989
. Statistical method for testing the neutral mutation hypothesis by DNA polymorphism. Genetics 123:585–595
Walsh, P. S.
1990
. Chelex 100 as a medium for simple extraction of DNA for PCR-based typing from forensic material. Biotechniques 10:506–513
Watterson, G. A.
1975
. On the number of segregation sites.
Theor. Popul. Biol.
7
:
256
–276
Wayne, R. K.
1994
. Molecular genetics of endangered species. Pp. 92–117 in P. J. S. Olney, ed. Creative conservation. Interactive management of wild and captive animals. Chapman and Hall Press, London
Wei, F. W., and J. C. Hu.
1992
. Status and protection of the lesser panda in Sichuan. J. Sichuan Normal Coll. (Nat. Sci.) 13:156–160
Zhang, Y. P., and O. A. Ryder.
1993
. Mitochondrial DNA sequence evolution in the Arctoidea. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:9557–9561
Issue Section:
Regular Article
Download all slides
Advertisem*nt
Citations
Views
43,426
Altmetric
More metrics information
Metrics
Total Views 43,426
41,699 Pageviews
1,727 PDF Downloads
Since 12/1/2016
Month: | Total Views: |
---|---|
December 2016 | 5 |
January 2017 | 13 |
February 2017 | 60 |
March 2017 | 37 |
April 2017 | 56 |
May 2017 | 103 |
June 2017 | 19 |
July 2017 | 20 |
August 2017 | 30 |
September 2017 | 82 |
October 2017 | 113 |
November 2017 | 141 |
December 2017 | 897 |
January 2018 | 909 |
February 2018 | 1,315 |
March 2018 | 1,475 |
April 2018 | 1,247 |
May 2018 | 1,868 |
June 2018 | 813 |
July 2018 | 727 |
August 2018 | 705 |
September 2018 | 938 |
October 2018 | 952 |
November 2018 | 1,028 |
December 2018 | 844 |
January 2019 | 692 |
February 2019 | 1,020 |
March 2019 | 974 |
April 2019 | 996 |
May 2019 | 1,143 |
June 2019 | 738 |
July 2019 | 513 |
August 2019 | 583 |
September 2019 | 544 |
October 2019 | 533 |
November 2019 | 431 |
December 2019 | 407 |
January 2020 | 485 |
February 2020 | 608 |
March 2020 | 513 |
April 2020 | 483 |
May 2020 | 374 |
June 2020 | 338 |
July 2020 | 178 |
August 2020 | 240 |
September 2020 | 362 |
October 2020 | 591 |
November 2020 | 595 |
December 2020 | 512 |
January 2021 | 503 |
February 2021 | 589 |
March 2021 | 764 |
April 2021 | 618 |
May 2021 | 734 |
June 2021 | 338 |
July 2021 | 142 |
August 2021 | 150 |
September 2021 | 386 |
October 2021 | 441 |
November 2021 | 524 |
December 2021 | 401 |
January 2022 | 453 |
February 2022 | 558 |
March 2022 | 881 |
April 2022 | 916 |
May 2022 | 816 |
June 2022 | 356 |
July 2022 | 132 |
August 2022 | 145 |
September 2022 | 276 |
October 2022 | 406 |
November 2022 | 335 |
December 2022 | 311 |
January 2023 | 330 |
February 2023 | 313 |
March 2023 | 405 |
April 2023 | 370 |
May 2023 | 482 |
June 2023 | 155 |
July 2023 | 89 |
August 2023 | 90 |
September 2023 | 182 |
October 2023 | 198 |
November 2023 | 237 |
December 2023 | 227 |
January 2024 | 244 |
February 2024 | 396 |
March 2024 | 283 |
Altmetrics
Email alerts
Article activity alert
Advance article alerts
New issue alert
In progress issue alert
Receive exclusive offers and updates from Oxford Academic
Email alerts
Advance article alerts
New issue alert
In progress issue alert
Receive exclusive offers and updates from Oxford Academic
Citing articles via
Google Scholar
-
Latest
-
Most Read
-
Most Cited
More from Oxford Academic
Biological Sciences
Evolutionary Biology
Molecular and Cell Biology
Science and Mathematics
Books
Journals
Advertisem*nt