English naturalist Charles Darwin concluded in 1842 that barrier reefs began as reefs fringing the land around which they now form a barrier and that oceanic atoll reefs began as reefs fringing a volcanic island. Subsidence of the land fringed was thought to allow the reef to grow upward (and outward over its own fore-reef debris). Maximum growth would occur at the seaward edge, and lagoons would develop between the ascending barrier, or atoll, reef and the land or volcanic cone. When the volcanic cone became completely submerged, the atoll lagoon would contain only coral islands. Fundamentally, Darwin’s concept is still valid, although many consider submergence by the rise of sea level, following melting of ice sheets that appeared during the Pleistocene Epoch (2,600,000 to 11,700 years ago), to be a better explanation of the latest upward growth of many reefs, particularly on continental shelves. Mid-ocean stages of coral reef development are explained by plate-tectonic theory, according to which the ocean floor subsides as it spreads outward from oceanic ridges. The Hawaiian Islands, with barrier reefs in the southeast grading to atolls in the northwest, is a good example of this.
A reef whose surface lies above the high-tide mark, either by uplift or by eustatic regression of the sea (which is determined by ice sheet–sea level relations), is subject to planing by marine erosion. If planing off is complete, a flat-topped submerged platform results. If subsidence or eustatic submergence intervenes, a wave-cut terrace is left around the reef. Terraces that may have formed in this way are known around many reefs.
Some annular reefs may develop without relation to subsiding volcanic cones. When reef platforms have been uplifted above sea level, they are subjected to subaerial erosion. Surface slope, or gradient, determines the amount of runoff and is a prime factor in this erosion. Two secondary processes also are involved: (1) case hardening of steep, bare limestone surfaces by recrystallization caused by alternate wetting and drying, so that walls or knifelike edges result from weathering, and (2) continuous subsoil solution, if surfaces are nearly horizontal and runoff is diminished. These processes combine to produce a prominent rim and a saucer-shaped interior in emerged limestone islands. With submergence, algal and coral growth resumes, the fastest growth being on the rim and on any pinnacles that may be left. Thus, an atoll or annular reef may develop along the rim around the low-lying central region, which becomes a lagoon, and coral knolls grow on former pinnacles in the lagoonal area.
Reef accumulation
Tropical water conditions
Water conditions favourable to the growth of reefs exist in tropical or near-tropical surface waters. Regional differences may result from the presence or absence of upwelling currents of colder waters or from the varying relation of precipitation to evaporation.
Tropical seas are well lit, the hours of daylight varying with latitude. Light intensity and radiant energy also vary with depth. Thus, at latitude 32°44′ N (the Madeira Islands) the “day” in March has a length of 11 hours at a depth of 20 metres (65 feet), 5 hours at 30 metres (about 100 feet), and only about a quarter of an hour at 40 metres (130 feet). Nearer the pole these figures decrease further. Light intensity has a profound effect on the growth of the individual reef-coral skeleton because of the symbiont zooxanthellae of reef corals (see below Biological factors). The number of species present on a reef also may be related to light intensity and radiant energy.
Turbidity—that is, the cloudiness of the water—may be high in lagoons, where shallow water lies over a silt-covered seafloor and where storms and windy periods cause considerable disturbance of the bottom silt. The average transparency may be low (about 12 metres [about 40 feet]), and light penetration is reduced.
Inside the Great Barrier Reef, on the shallow continental shelf of Queensland, the oxygen content of the water is high, exceeding 90 percent saturation most of the time; in deeper water, during the calm periods of the rainy season, the saturation may fall to about 80 percent. Plant nutrients such as phosphate and nitrate show no seasonal change in quantity; both are present in very small quantities throughout the year. Constant mixing of the shallow sea prevents any stratification of the nutrients. As a result, growth of phytoplankton is possible and almost uniform throughout the year, providing a constant supply of food for the zooplankton, which in turn form the chief food supply of the corals. Some nutrients enter the lagoonal waters with the oceanic water that flows through the reef openings, but the dissolved phosphates in the lagoons are probably derived chiefly from bacterial decomposition of the organic matter on the sea bottom, as well as from detritus swept in from the reef surfaces. This environmental pattern is typical of many atoll lagoons.
